Historical Influences of Mathematics (Part 2 Of 3)

Three factors—the needs of the subject, the child, and the society—have influenced what mathematics is to be taught in schools. Many people think that “math is math” and never changes. This three-part series briefly discusses these three factors and paints a different picture: mathematics is an ever-changing subject.

We have already discussed the Needs of the Subject in the previous blog. In this second part, we discuss-

Needs of the Child

The mathematics curriculum has been influenced by beliefs and knowledge about how children learn and, ultimately, about how they should be taught. Before the early years of the twentieth century, mathematics was taught to train “mental faculties” or provide “mental discipline.” Struggling with mathematical procedures was thought to exercise the mind (like muscles are exercised), helping children’s brains work more effectively. Around the turn of the twentieth century, “mental discipline” was replaced by connectionism, the belief that learning established bonds, or connections, between a stimulus and responses. This led teachers to the endless use of drills aimed at establishing important mathematical connections.

In the 1920s, the Progressive movement advocated incidental learning, reflecting the belief that children would learn as much arithmetic as they needed and would learn it better if it was not systematically taught. The teacher’s role was to take advantage of situations when they occurred naturally as well as to create situations in which arithmetic would arise.

During the late 1920s, the Committee of Seven, a committee of school superintendents and principals from midwestern cities, surveyed pupils to find out when they mastered various topics. Based on that survey, the committee recommended teaching mathematics topics according to students’ mental age. For example, subtraction facts under 10 were to be taught to children with a mental age of 6 years 7 months and facts over 10 at 7 years 8 months; subtraction with borrowing or carrying was to be taught at 8 years 9 months. The recommendations of the Committee of Seven had a strong impact on the sequencing of the curriculum for years afterward.

Another change in thinking occurred in the mid-1930s, under the influence of field theory, or Gestalt theory. A 1954 article by William A. Brownell (2006), a prominent mathematics education researcher, showed the benefits of encouraging insight and the understanding of relationships, structures, patterns, interpretations, and principles. His research contributed to an increased focus on learning as a process that led to meaning and understanding. The value of drill was acknowledged, but it was given less importance than understanding; drill was no longer the major means of providing instruction.

The relative importance of drill and understanding is still debated today. In this debate, people often treat understanding and learning skills as if they are opposites, but this is not the case. The drill is necessary to build speed and accuracy and to make skills automatic. But equally clearly, you need to know why as well as how. Both skills and understanding must be developed, and they can be developed together with the help of International Maths Challenge sample questions.

Changes in the field of psychology have continued to affect education. During the second half of the twentieth century, educators came to understand that the developmental level of the child is a major factor in determining the sequence of the curriculum. Topics cannot be taught until children are developmentally ready to learn them. Or, from another point of view, topics must be taught in such a way that children at a given developmental level are ready to learn them.

Research has provided increasing evidence that children construct their own knowledge. In so doing, they make sense of the mathematics and feel that they can tackle new problems. Thus, helping children learn mathematics means being aware of how children have constructed mathematics from their experiences both in and out of school.

End Note

As we have explored, a child’s journey through mathematics is deeply intertwined with their cognitive development, critical thinking skills, and overall academic success. By addressing their individual needs, providing appropriate support, and fostering a positive learning environment, we lay the foundation for a lifelong appreciation and understanding of mathematics. But what about the broader context? How does mathematics serve society at large, and what influences has it made in history? In our next blog, we will delve into these questions, examining the societal needs in mathematics and its profound impact on the course of human history.


Importance of Maths in Kids Daily Life

Mathematics is an essential part of our daily lives, and it is crucial for children to develop strong math skills from a young age. Here are some reasons why math is important in kids’ daily lives:

Problem-solving skills: Mathematics teaches children how to solve problems, both in math-related situations and in real-life situations. The logical and analytical skills they develop through math help them find solutions to problems and make informed decisions.

Money management: Math skills are essential for managing finances. Children need to learn how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide money to manage their allowances and understand the value of different amounts.

Time management: Math skills also play a critical role in time management. Children need to be able to tell time, calculate elapsed time, and understand the concept of time zones to manage their schedules and keep appointments.

Measurements: Measurements are everywhere, from cooking to construction. Math skills are necessary for children to understand the different units of measurement and use them in everyday situations.

Technology: Math is essential for understanding and using technology. Programming, robotics, and computer science are all based on math concepts. Register for the International Maths Olympiad Challenge to improve your kid’s skill and thinking level.

Academic and career success: Strong math skills are essential for success in academic and career fields such as engineering, science, finance, and technology. Building a strong foundation in math from a young age can set children up for future success.

In summary, math is an essential subject that plays a crucial role in students’ academic and personal development. It helps students develop problem-solving and critical thinking skills, enhances their quantitative abilities, improves decision-making abilities, advances career opportunities, and improves overall academic performance.


How Mathematics Can Help You Divide Anything Up Fairly

Whether you are sharing a cake or a coastline, maths can help make sure everyone is happy with their cut, says Katie Steckles.

One big challenge in life is dividing things fairly. From sharing a tasty snack to allocating resources between nations, having a strategy to divvy things up equitably will make everyone a little happier.

But it gets complicated when the thing you are dividing isn’t an indistinguishable substance: maybe the cake you are sharing has a cherry on top, and the piece with the cherry (or the area of coastline with good fish stocks) is more desirable. Luckily, maths – specifically game theory, which deals with strategy and decision-making when people interact – has some ideas.

When splitting between two parties, you might know a simple rule, proven to be mathematically optimal: I cut, you choose. One person divides the cake (or whatever it is) and the other gets to pick which piece they prefer.

Since the person cutting the cake doesn’t choose which piece they get, they are incentivised to cut the cake fairly. Then when the other person chooses, everyone is satisfied – the cutter would be equally happy with either piece, and the chooser gets their favourite of the two options.

This results in what is called an envy-free allocation – neither participant can claim they would rather have the other person’s share. This also takes care of the problem of non-homogeneous objects: if some parts of the cake are more desirable, the cutter can position their cut so the two pieces are equal in value to them.

What if there are more people? It is more complicated, but still possible, to produce an envy-free allocation with several so-called fair-sharing algorithms.

Let’s say Ali, Blake and Chris are sharing a cake three ways. Ali cuts the cake into three pieces, equal in value to her. Then Blake judges if there are at least two pieces he would be happy with. If Blake says yes, Chris chooses a piece (happily, since he gets free choice); Blake chooses next, pleased to get one of the two pieces he liked, followed by Ali, who would be satisfied with any of the pieces. If Blake doesn’t think Ali’s split was equitable, Chris looks to see if there are two pieces he would take. If yes, Blake picks first, then Chris, then Ali.

If both Blake and Chris reject Ali’s initial chop, then there must be at least one piece they both thought was no good. This piece goes to Ali – who is still happy, because she thought the pieces were all fine – and the remaining two pieces get smooshed back together (that is a mathematical term) to create one piece of cake for Blake and Chris to perform “I cut, you choose” on.

While this seems long-winded, it ensures mathematically optimal sharing – and while it does get even more complicated, it can be extended to larger groups. So whether you are sharing a treat or a divorce settlement, maths can help prevent arguments.

For more such insights, log into www.international-maths-challenge.com.

*Credit for article given to Katie Steckles*